CRUELTY METAPHORS IN ONLINE FOOTBALL MATCH REPORTS IN RUSSIAN

Sizykh A.A.

Moscow City Pedagogical University
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: alexandersizykh@yandex.ru

Sports and a healthy lifestyle are universal values in a civilized and developed society. Public institutions face the social challenge of fostering a positive image and promoting a healthy lifestyle and sports. The media plays a leading role in promoting healthy lifestyles and sports. Television, print media, the internet, and radio actively cover sports and related events.

According to a number of researchers, the language of sport is a special way of implementing the national language [19; 16, p. 79]. It is characterized by distinctive stylistic features, special contexts and specialized vocabulary. A number of oral and written genres are distinguished in the language of football: live game commentary on television, radio and Internet broadcasts, pre-match forecasts, post-match analysis. Among them, the genre of press releases is noted and, in particular, a post-match review of the game, published on the Internet [14]. An online match review consists of two parts: a descriptive part, in which the main episodes of the game are recounted in detail, and an analytical, or evaluative part, where the correspondent shares his impressions of the course of the meeting, the coaching ideas, the actions of the teams and individual players [18, pp. 87-88]. Online reviews are characterized by the following lexical and grammatical features [16]:

predominance of past tense verb forms; high frequency of compound and complex sentences, compared to a classic news report (in the latter, subordinate clauses predominate); very frequent use of adverbs of time and place (the spatio-temporal aspect plays an important role in this genre); frequent use of modal verbs; prevalence of evaluative adjectives; a significant proportion of specialized vocabulary; increased use of noun phrases and proper names (mostly they name football teams and players).

A characteristic feature of texts published on the Internet is that they are able to combine features of oral and written speech [9]. In this regard, online match reviews are replete with figures of speech, in particular, metaphors, characteristic of the oral genre of sports commentary [10, pp. 156-157; 18, p. 241]. Metaphors occupy an important place in the language of sports and perform cognitive [4, p. 11] and expressive-evaluative [7] functions that allow you to name an actor or event if it does not have its own name, and to express the emotions of the game participants and the correspondent.

In reality, however, the use of metaphors has much deeper roots. Metaphors are not so much products of speech as of human cognitive activity; that is, we first perceive the world through metaphors, and only then use them in speech to describe it. And since part of the physical world is understood metaphorically, it is clear that metaphor plays a significant role in defining what is real for us [12]. Since we understand life through metaphors and use them to describe it, metaphor is an effective way to form an image [11].

Before discussing the social function of metaphor, it is necessary to understand the specific features of its functioning as such. The essence of metaphor is the understanding and experience of entities of one kind in terms of another [12, p. 5]. From this definition it follows that metaphor has target area (target domain) (the entity being defined) and region source (source domain) (defining entity). If language (and consciousness as the leading force of language) lacks the resources to describe a goal, it resorts to other domains of life whose methods of description adequately correspond to the goal and can be applied to its understanding. In other words, the source, being more concrete and having a sufficiently correct internal structure, "shares" its descriptive resources with the target, which is always less concrete, insufficiently clearly defined, and in need of such definition. For this reason, the source is also called area of departure, and the goal is arrival area. The process of transferring concepts from the source domain to the target domain is called cognitive mapping (cognitive mapping) or metaphorical projection (metaphorical mapping) [4, p. 9].

Of particular interest to researchers is the process of coordination in the structuring of experience, i.e., how and on what basis we begin to perceive some realities of life in terms of others. J. Lakoff and M. Johnson [12, pp. 77-86] argue that for the interaction between the target area and the source area to occur, they must be multidimensional structural wholes, called empirical gestalts (experiential gestalts), the individual dimensions of which are conceptually identical or similar. Thus, a metaphor arises when parts of one multidimensional structure "overlay" corresponding parts of another.

The correspondences between the source domain and the target domain that are most stable in the language and culture of a society are called conceptual metaphors (conceptual metaphors). They are based on two types of correlations between experiential entities: 1) empirical co-occurrence (experiential cooccurrence), based on the regular use in one context of concepts of two types of experience, and 2) empirical similarity (experiential similarity), arising from the presence of similar features between the target domain and the source domain. Conceptual metaphors are capable of forming coherent structures at a more global level— cognitive models [4, p. 13]. These “models structure thought and are used in the formation of categories and in thinking. Concepts characterized by cognitive models are understood through the embodiment of these models” [3, p. 29]. Constantly intersecting in living speech, metaphors of different concepts form idealized cognitive models [2, p. 69-70].

J. Charteris-Black argues that both football and combat, whether armed or hand-to-hand, presuppose territorial control and require both physical and mental strength and training [8, pp. 125-126]. Just as in organized combat, a football match involves two opposing sides whose goal is to defeat the opponent and win the competition. Each team member performs a specific function, and is led by a leader who is not directly involved. Both teams have their own formation and preliminary plan of action, and as the game unfolds, they adjust it based on the current result, their own capabilities, and the actions of the opponent. Their correct, "smart" actions contribute to the desired result, while errors, conversely, hinder it.

In support of the observed similarity, a group of conceptual metaphors united by the meaning of cruelty is found in football discourse [15]. The target domain is the FOOTBALL MATCH and everything associated with it: COMPETITION, TEAM, PERFORMANCE, DEFEAT. Among the source domains, WAR, DEATH, BOXING MATCH, HUNTING, and DUEL stand out [20, p. 90].

Particular attention is paid to the methods of naming athletes using military-historical terminology: the team can be legion, cohort or squad; they are formed by separate gladiators, knights or berserkers [1]. It is these concepts that form the basis of the discourse of football reporting [15, p. 87].

Thus, by actively resorting to a variety of metaphors of "cruelty," journalists, not without reason, encourage us to perceive a football game as an event filled with zeal, a thirst for victory and, often, unscrupulousness.

The metaphors of sports discourse are of interest primarily to foreign researchers [13; 14; 15; 16; 18; 19; 20], while Russian linguists rarely pay attention to it [1; 5; 6].

In order to study the metaphors of "cruelty" used in Russian-language sports discourse, their nature and frequency, we collected a subcorpus of sports media texts, identified the desired metaphors in them, determined their meaning hidden behind the metaphor, grouped them according to the principle of unity or similarity of meanings, counted their total number, calculated the frequency of use of each of the metaphors, and also calculated the share of each conceptual metaphor in the total number of uses.

In this work, the following methods were used: content analysis, classification and quantitative analysis. To isolate metaphorical expressions from the text, we applied the Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP) [17], which includes the following steps: read the text completely and determine its general meaning; identify lexical units of the text; establish the meaning of each lexical unit in context, i.e., taking into account previous and subsequent information; find out whether the lexical unit has a more general modern meaning used in contexts other than the given one. In our case, the following meanings are considered general:

- more specific;

— relating to physical actions;

- more precise (as opposed to vague);

- older ones;

If a lexical unit has a more general modern meaning in contexts other than the given one, determine whether the contextual meaning is opposed to the main one and whether it can be deduced from comparison with the main one; if so, mark the lexical unit as metaphorical.

Following the example of M. Lewandowski [15], we did not include in the study some metaphorical concepts that have become key to sports discourse; these include attack, protection, struggle, attack, defender, hit, beat, hit head, tolerate defeat and some others.

The material for the study was 31 An article from sport-express.ru, the online publication of one of Russia's oldest sports newspapers, Sport-Express. The source covers various tournaments, including the English Premier League, the EFL Cup, and the UEFA Champions League. The total length of the articles is 18 483 words.

We found 88 metaphorical expressions related to the theme of violence, used in total 157 times. Using the method of calculating the degree of metaphorization of discourse, we found out that one metaphor of «violence» is found among 117.7 words of publications. On average, one article contains 5 metaphors.

The discovered "cruelty" metaphors can be divided into six groups. Each group has a conceptual metaphor in its name and unites metaphorical expressions that can be included within this conceptual metaphor. Five of these groups have been described in earlier works [15; 20], and one is identified here for the first time.

A FOOTBALL MATCH IS A WAR

Journalists most often resort to this semantic group to describe the most fundamental rivalries, such as the Liverpool-Chelsea derby. Since war itself is a rather broad definition and it is quite difficult to call a single match a war, authors resort to the concepts of contractions, battles or battle.

The Londoners already knew this, having fought in the UEFA Super Cup a month ago (2:2) and lost only in a penalty shootout.

And it comes three days before the clash between Jurgen Klopp and Maurizio Sarri in the Premier League.

During such a confrontation, the team coaches are being brought into battle football players. Players who missed one or more previous matches and are returning to the game, are returning to duty.

Emery committed elite reserves to the battle, […].

It's no surprise that the ways of describing attacking and hitting the ball varied. Attacking can lean on on the opponent and bombard his gates to the unconditional defeat or lie in wait and commit forays. Shoot means to make any shot towards the goal. Bomb They call it an unexpected and outstandingly beautiful goal.

A goal-bomb from Salah.

Located on spearhead of the attack the forward can hit the target, having shot goalkeeper point-blank. Otherwise, you can break through if the player the aim is lost and he fired, then the ball will not go into the goal, but will fly out of the field, i.e. this is what they call an exceptionally inaccurate strike.

Sissoko […] moved the ball onto his weak left foot and fired into the top tier.

By the end of the match the team can either bomb enemy and force him surrender, and fight off a siege and still throw out the white flag.

This concept, as expected, turned out to be the most productive. We found 33 metaphorical expressions used in total 64 times.

DEFEAT IS DEATH

Losing, especially to a key rival or in a crucial match, is always a tragedy for a team and its fans, and therefore is often described with metaphors that suggest death or significant damage. Former Liverpool manager Bill Shankly put it very wittily, saying that football is far more important than a matter of life and death.[1]. By beating or humiliation call the opponent's victory convincing. Then one team destroys, suffocates pressing, presses or breaks opponent. If one of the participating teams looks like an underdog even before the match starts, skeptics tend to bury.

By the middle of the first half, the Blues had come to their senses a little, and the one-sided beating ceased.

To be honest, I don’t remember Manchester United being buried before the match with Liverpool.

However, when the seemingly hopeless situation begins to improve, the team is being reborn or comes to his senses, or someone or something resurrects. Then she is saved, is being restored from the damage received and straightens his shoulders.

VAR has resurrected Leicester.

With the arrival of Unai Emery, the Londoners straightened their shoulders.

This concept is as productive and common as FOOTBALL MATCH IS WAR and produces 33 metaphorical expressions discovered 61 once.

ACTIVE ACTIONS ARE EXPLOSION/BURNING/FLASH

During our research, we discovered a new concept, not previously mentioned. A characteristic feature of most outstanding matches is their heightened emotional intensity. This is often conceptualized as a kind of flaming fire. Such games are commonly referred to as hot or hot.

This history of confrontation guaranteed that the match would be heated.

Explode This can be caused by both the players themselves, who suddenly start playing actively and aggressively, and by the team coaches, who are indignant at the, conversely, unsatisfactory performance of their players. However, closer to halftime or the end of the match, the activity can become quiet.

Then the guests exploded, […].

If a team lacks the desire, physical fitness, and creativity to create dangerous moments near the opponent's goal, they say they lack passion.

Spurs lacked the fire to play offensively, […].

Explosions They also call numerous shots on goal, which lead to disorder and fuss among the opposing players, which journalists compare to smoke. And the team's unsuccessful defensive actions are usually called fire.

After the London cannonade, the Manchester United penalty area was shrouded in smoke from the explosions, […].

[…], and the defense was on fire: in one of the episodes, Alisson almost lost the ball on level ground while leaving the goal.

Unlike the previous one, this concept uses eight different figures of speech in total ten once.

Trying to score a goal is a hunt

The desire to score a goal in football can be compared to the desire to catch an animal during a hunt. Moreover, both processes require total commitment, focus, and often require cunning and uncompromisingness. Thus, a favorite team, playing aggressively and leaving no chance for the opponent, is represented bloodthirsty и toothy, and ambitious youth can be called fanged.

Not yet so bloodthirsty and toothy, but already incredibly ambitious.

[…] however, the youth turned out to be fanged.

Salah, after a one-two with Firmino, snatched the ball from Emerson (our italics – A.S.), […].

The exceptional imagery prevents this concept from developing and being used like many others. In the articles reviewed, we found six metaphorical expressions to which the authors resorted eight once.

A FOOTBALL MATCH IS A BOXING FIGHT

Indeed, martial arts on the field often resemble real fights between fighters. Clinch It is customary to call a "sticky" game without a clear advantage for one of the sides. On the other hand, a team can send the opponent into knockout, confidently defeating him or knocking him out of the tournament.

Neither side was in a position to win, and the draw only allowed the opponents locked in a clinch to draw level with Chelsea.

Instead of the expected knockout, the guests themselves pressed «"Liverpool"» to the ropes (italics ours – A.S.).

Initially, this concept was studied within the framework of concepts borrowed from other sports [13, p. 32], but the outstanding cruelty of boxing prompted these metaphors to be classified as «cruelty» metaphors [15, p. 92].

The duel seems to us to be an earlier and more noble analogue of boxing, with the only difference being that the weapons are not the combatants' fists, but their swords. This method of combat also serves as a source for conceptual metaphors in football discourse. In Russian-language sports discourse, duel is a one-on-one confrontation between a striker from one team and a goalkeeper from the other. This conceptual metaphor turned out to be the least productive of those found in our work. It produces only two metaphorical expressions; we discovered their use four times.

[…] Abraham lost the one-on-one duel with Adrian, […].

The number of metaphors found and the number of their uses can be found in Table 1.

Table 1.

Conceptual metaphor	Number of metaphors	Number of uses
A FOOTBALL MATCH IS A WAR	33	64
DEFEAT IS DEATH	33	61
ACTIVE ACTIONS ARE EXPLOSION/BURNING/FLASH	8	10
Trying to score a goal is a hunt	6	8
A FOOTBALL MATCH IS A BOXING FIGHT	6	10
A FOOTBALL COMPETITION IS A DUEL	2	4
TOTAL	88	157

Conceptual metaphors of "cruelty" in football discourse

Metaphors were found in each of the online football match reviews studied. All components of the discourse are subject to metaphorization: the nomination of the game as a whole, its actors (players, coaches, referees); and events (win/loss, attack/defense and their components); the actions of actors and the occurrence of events (attack/defend, score/concede a goal, foul); the characteristics of actors and events (exciting/boring game, promising/predictable match, beautiful/ordinary goal). In addition to their nominative and substitutive functions, metaphors also perform an expressive function. By using them, the author imbues the events of the game and its actors with emotional coloring and determines the emotive nature of the text. The correspondent can exploit this psychological property of metaphor and shape readers' attitudes toward the subject of the message. The combination of these factors positively affects the proportion of metaphorical vocabulary in the material under review. In Russian-language online reviews of football matches, metaphors occupy a prominent place 1,9 % total volume of publications.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis revealed that Russian-language football discourse utilizes virtually all the conceptual metaphors for "cruelty" found in earlier works. The most significant source areas are WAR and DEATH—they are used to create 79,6% metaphors of "cruelty". Metaphors of the concept FOOTBALL MATCH IS WAR make up 40,7% of the total number of metaphors identified, the metaphor of the concept DEFEAT IS DEATH – 38,9%. The share of other metaphorical concepts is significantly lower – four concepts produce 20,4% metaphors of "cruelty".

This study examines only a portion of the discourse under consideration and cannot reflect all of its trends and distinctive characteristics. A more comprehensive understanding requires examining conceptual metaphors whose meaning is not related to violence, other types of publications, and individual aspects of their lexical and stylistic characteristics. Particular attention should be paid to live commentary, as it forms the foundation of the entire football discourse and determines its trends and development.

Since football occupies a significant place in sports, in particular, and in social life in general, the results of this study can be applied both to the study of the linguistic worldview of one of the cultures under consideration and to the identification of cross-cultural differences. It complements existing knowledge about the language and linguistic culture of football and provides a foundation for further research in linguistics and cultural studies.

Literature

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21. https://www.sport-express.ru/

References

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8. Malysheva EG. (2009) Metaphorical Model ’Sports is War« in Journalistic Sports Discourse (Based on Contemporary Printed and Online Mass Media) // Tomsk State University Journal, 328, pp. 14–19.
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11. Charteris-Black J. (2004) Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 293 p.
12. Davis BH, Brewer JP. (1997) Electronic Discourse: Linguistic Individuals in Virtual Space. Albany: State University of New York Press. 217 p.
13. Ferguson C. (1983) Sports Announcer Talk: Syntactic Aspects of Register Variation. // Language in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2: 12. P. 153-172.
14. Lakoff G. (1991) Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf // Peace Research. P. 25-32.
15. Lakoff G., Johnson M. (1980) Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 256 p.
16. Lewandowski M. (2009) Metaphors from Other Sports in the Language of Soccer – Evidence from English and Polish // Language, Communication, Information, 4, P. 29-48.
17. Lewandowski M. (2008) The Language of Soccer – a Sociolect or a Register? // Language, Communication, Information, 3, pp. 21-32.
18. Lewandowski M. (2011) The Rhetoric of Violence in Polish and English Soccer Reporting // Language, Communication, Information, 5, P. 87-99.
19. Lewandowski M. (2017) The Same Genre for Different Audiences: a Contrastive Analysis of American and British Football Match Reports // Cognitive Approaches to Specialist Languages. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 465 p.
20. Pragglejaz Group. (2007) MIP: A Method for Identifying Metaphorically Used // Metaphor and Symbol, 22(1), P. 1-39.
21. Steen R. (2008) Sports Journalism: A Multimedia Primer. New York City: Routledge. 221 p.
22. Taborek J. (2012) The Language of Sport: Some Remarks on The Language of Football // Informed Teaching - Premises of Modern Foreign Language Pedagogy / Edited by Lankiewicz H. and Wąsikiewicz-Firlej E. Piła: Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa im. Stanisława Staszica. 279 p.
23. Wiliński J. (2014) Metaphors in Written Soccer Commentaries: Evidence from German // Acta Neophilologica, 2: 16, P. 87-97.
24. URL: https://www.sport-express.ru/